DNA

DNA Information

My DNA Testing was done through Ancestry.com

I highly recommend using Ancestry,com as
they have a simple yet valuable system of matching
DNA links and circles and keeping the users updated
with new DNA matches.    Keith

Go to DNA Confirmed Links
to see the links to ancestors that I
have been linked to though DNA.

Great Britain 83% (61% - 100%)

Primarily located in: England, Scotland, Wales......
Also found in: Ireland, France, Germany, Denmark, 
Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, Italy

Scandinavia 6% (0% - 20%)

Primarily located in: Sweden, Norway, Denmark.....
Also found in: Great Britain, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Belgium, the Baltic States, Finland

Italy/Greece 5% (0% - 12%)

Primarily located in: Italy, Greece.....
Also found in: France, Switzerland, Portugal, Spain, Serbia,
Hungary, Bulgaria, Austria, Croatia, Bosnia, Romania,
Turkey, Slovenia, Algeria, Tunisia, Montenegro,
Albania, Macedonia, Kosovo

Finland/Northwest Russia 2% (0% - 6%)

Primarily located in: Finland, Russia (northwest).....

Also found in: Estonia, Latvia, Sweden, Lithuania

Europe West 1% (0% - 7%)

Primarily located in: Belgium, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein.....
Also found in: England, Denmark, Italy, Slovenia, Czech Republic

Ireland – 1% (0% - 5%)

Primarily located in: Ireland, Wales, Scotland.....

Also found in: France, England

Caucasus 1% (0% -3%)

Primarily located in: Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey.....

Also found in: Bulgaria, Jordan, Greece, Italy,
Kuwait, Palestine, Romania, Turkmenistan

Senegal 1% (0%-2%)

Primarily located in: Senegal, the Gambia.....

Also found in: Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania

Comments

After comparing DNA results with other extended family members on the Ross/Taylor side, I have seen that they also have the Sengal or African traces.I am looking forward to seeing the results from other close family members.

While serving my mission in Finland, in the city of Joensuu,in the area of Karalia, I had the distinct impression that I had Finnish roots and ancestors.  I convinced myself that it was just wishful thinking.

Ethnic Percentages

It is nearly impossible to draw any definitive conclusions about our overall ethnicity, because I received only half of my father’s, and half of my mother’s DNA. My sister Kim has not had hers tested yet, but when she does, it is entirely possible that she received the other half of each of our parents DNA that I did not receive.
DNA Circles

The DNA testing that I had completed through Ancestry.com has allowed me to compare and research the other DNA samples they have made available publically. This database has already matched my DNA with 629 other relatives, 62 of which are relatives, 4th cousins or closer, including my aunt Rhonda Ross Soaper.

The DNA testing has allowed me to confirm that my researched ancestors, back 6 generations and most of the 7th, on my mother’s side are indeed DNA relatives. Unfortunately there have only been two matches or DNA circles on my father’s side.

In the future I hope to resolve some of our blocked lines through the use of this DNA information and through DNA circles. The more of us that have our DNA tested the larger the DNA Circles become and the more conclusive the connections.

Great Britain 83% (61% - 100%)

Primarily located in: England, Scotland, Wales......Also found in: Ireland, France, Germany, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, Italy

The history of Great Britain is often told in terms of the invasions with different groups of invaders displacing the native population. The Romans, Anglo-Saxon, Vikings and Normans have all left their mark on Great Britain both politically and culturally. However, the story of Great Britain is far more complex than the traditional view of invaders displacing existing populations. In fact modern studies of British people tend to suggest the earliest populations continued to exist and adapt and absorb the new arrivals.

The people living in the Great Britain region today are more admixed than most other regions, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we often see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 60% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.

Population History

Prehistoric Britain

At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, 12,000 years ago, the sea levels around northern Europe were low enough for Stone Age hunter-gatherers to cross, on foot, into what are now the islands of Great Britain. Farming spread to the islands by about 4000 B.C., and the Neolithic inhabitants erected their remarkable and puzzling stone monuments, including the famed Stonehenge.

Beginning in about 2500 B.C., successive waves of tribes settled in the region. These tribes are often termed ‘Celts’, however that term is an 18th century invention. The Celts were not a nation in any sense, but a widespread group of tribes that shared a common cultural and linguistic background. Originating in central Europe, they spread to dominate most of western Europe, the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula. They even settled as far away as Anatolia, in modern-day Turkey. Their dominance could not withstand the rise of the Roman Empire, however.

After defeating the Celts of Gaul (modern-day France, Luxembourg, Belgium and western areas of Germany and Switzerland), the Romans invaded the British Isles in 43 A.D. Most of southern Britain was conquered and occupied over the course of a few decades and became the Roman province of Britannia. Hadrian’s Wall, in the north of England, marked the approximate extent of Roman control. Those tribes who were not assimilated into the Roman Empire were forced to retreat to other areas that remained Celtic, such as Wales, Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Brittany. The Roman presence largely wiped out most traces of pre-existing culture in England—even replacing the language with Latin.

Germanic tribes invade

With the decline of its Western Empire, Rome largely withdrew from Britannia in 410 A.D. As the Romans left, tribes from northern Germany and Denmark seized the opportunity to step in. The Germanic Angles and Saxons soon controlled much of the territory that had been under Roman rule, while the Jutes from Denmark occupied some smaller areas in the south. The new settlers imposed their language and customs on the local inhabitants in much the same way that the Romans had. The Germanic language spoken by the Angles would eventually develop into English.

The region was divided into several kingdoms, with the more powerful kings sometimes exerting influence or control over smaller bordering kingdoms. There was nothing like a single, unified English kingdom, however, until the early 10th century and the rise of the House of Wessex.

Viking invasions and the Danelaw

During the 8th century, seafaring Scandinavian adventurers began raiding coastal areas in Europe. Known as the Vikings, they were not just warriors and pillagers. They also established numerous trade ports and settlements throughout the Western world, including the British Isles, Russia, Iceland and the Iberian Peninsula. A group of Vikings that settled in northern France became known as the Normans and, by the early 11th century, ruled a great and powerful region, sanctioned by the French crown.

Danish Vikings began to invade northern and eastern England in 876 and eventually came to control a third of the country, defeating several smaller Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The rulers of the Danelaw, as the Viking area became known, struggled for nearly 80 years with the remaining English kings over the region. The balance of power swung back and forth a number of times, with an English king, Edward the Elder, gaining the upper hand in the early 900s and a Danish king, Cnut the Great, ruling England, Norway and Denmark from 1016 to 1035. After the deaths of Cnut’s sons, the throne returned to Anglo-Saxon control, but it was short-lived, as Edward the Confessor died without an heir. The Normans of France, led by William the Conqueror, sailed across the English Channel and claimed the throne of England, defeating the only other rival, Harold Godwinson, at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. In 1067, William extended his control to Scotland and Wales.

The Norman kings, ruling primarily from France, gave rise to the House of Plantagenet, a line of kings that began to consolidate and modernize the kingdom of England. Beginning in 1277, Edward I put down a revolt in Wales and led a full-scale invasion, bringing Wales under control of the English crown. He then seized political control of Scotland during a succession dispute, leading to a rebellion there. Edward’s campaign against the Scots wasn’t entirely successful and remained unresolved at his death. By decisively defeating Edward’s son at Bannockburn in 1314, the Scots assured their independence. The House of Plantagenet continued to reign until the 15th century. Towards the latter half of the 15th century the houses of York and the Lancaster, the most powerful Plantagenet branches fought a series of wars for control of the throne. Those wars ended with the Battle of Bosworth Field on the 22nd August 1486. At Bosworth Field Henry Tudor defeated Richard III. Henry took the throne as Henry VII and ushered in the reign of House Tudor. The reign of the Tudors lasted from Henry VII through to Elizabeth I in 1603.

The British Empire

After the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, England established itself as a major naval power. As European nations began founding colonies around the world, England was well positioned to compete for control of the largely untapped resources of the New World. Religious and political upheavals in England in the 17th and 18th centuries played critical roles in establishing and defining early American history, as dissidents left England seeking religious freedom. Subsequent emigrations from England to the Americas ensured a primarily English-derived culture and social structure.

During the 1760’s and 1770’s the relationship between the colonies in the Americas and Britain grew fractious due to the British Parliament’s attempts to tax colonists without representation in Parliament. This led to the American War of Independence with and the Thirteen Colonies gaining independence and forming a new nation, the United States of America.

The loss of the Thirteen Colonies is seen as the transition point in the British Empire from the First British Empire to the Second British Empire. In the Americas, Britain shifted its attention north to Canada where many of the defeated loyalists from the revolution had migrated to. And to make up for lost wealth in America, Britain now paid greater attention to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. In the 1770’s, James Cook travelled along Eastern Australia and New Zealand claiming them for Great Britain. Shortly after Britain set up penal colonies in Australia transporting large number of convicts to Australia. Over 80 years over 165,000 convicts were sent to Australia. In Asia, through the East India Company the British Empire gained more control throughout the continent. Throughout the early 19th Century the East India Company gained control over Java, Singapore, Hong Kong and India. The Government of India Act in 1858 established the British Raj, with Queen Victoria as Empress of India. India became one of the British Empire’s most important colonies. By the end of the 19th Century it was said that the sun never set on the British Empire, since it stretched around the world.

Scandinavia 6% (0% - 20%)

Primarily located in: Sweden, Norway, Denmark.....Also found in: Great Britain, France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, the Baltic States, Finland

Scandinavia is perched atop northern Europe, its natives referred to throughout history as “North Men.” Separated from the main European continent by the Baltic Sea, the Scandinavians have historically been renowned seafarers. Their adventures brought them into contact with much of the rest of Europe, sometimes as feared raiders and other times as well-traveled merchants and tradesmen.

Population History

As the glaciers retreated from northern Europe, roaming groups of hunter-gatherers from southern Europe followed reindeer herds inland and marine resources along the Scandinavian coast. Neolithic farmers eventually settled the region beginning about 6,000 years ago.

The Goths, originally from southern Sweden, wandered south around the 1st century B.C., crossed the Baltic Sea, and settled in what is now eastern Germany and Poland. In 410 A.D., forced west by the invading Huns, the Goths sacked Rome, contributing to the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Age of Vikings

While the Vikings were feared by the coastal towns of medieval Europe as seaborne raiders and violent pillagers, they were also well-traveled merchants and ambitious explorers. Their longships allowed them to travel over open oceans, as well as navigate shallow rivers, and they were light enough to be carried across land, if necessary.

The first waves of Vikings appeared along coastal cities and rivers, where they attacked villages, churches, monasteries, and abbeys. They would strike without warning and then quickly disappear, carrying their loot back to Scandinavia.

From 793 A.D. until 1066 the Vikings explored, settled, plundered and traded with much of Europe, Africa’s Mediterranean coast, Iceland, Greenland, and the northern part of North America (Vinland).

They set up trading posts along the Volga River, and are known to have engaged in trade as far away as Baghdad. They established settlements as far south as the Black Sea and served as mercenaries in Byzantium.

Not all Vikings were transient raiders, pillaging and moving on. They founded many permanent settlements and colonies, laying the groundwork for new cultures and major historical events.

By 859 A.D., Swedish Vikings, called Rus’, had settled in eastern Europe along the Volga River for trade purposes. Legend has it that one of the Rus’, Prince Rurik, was elected ruler of the local Slavic population. Over time, the Vikings were assimilated into the Slavic culture and expanded their domain from their capital in Kiev. Their nation came to be known as Kievan Rus’, from which modern-day Russia draws its name.

In 851, a group of Vikings began settling on the coast of northern France. In 911, the French king granted them control of their own territory on the condition that they help protect France from additional Viking raids. The region became known as Normandy, named for the Viking “North Men” who lived there. William the Conqueror, a descendant of those settlers, asserted control over all of Normandy by 1050. He became the first Norman king of England after crossing the English Channel and defeating Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

During the 9th century, Vikings established a trade port at Dublin in western Ireland. They controlled this area of Ireland for much of the next 300 years.

Danish Vikings invaded and settled northern and eastern England beginning in 876, and managed to control a third of Britain (the Danelaw) for nearly 80 years. The Danish prince, Cnut the Great, was king of England from 1016 to 1035. He also ruled Denmark and parts of Norway and Sweden.

Norwegian Vikings colonized northern Scotland, the Orkneys, the Hebrides, the Isle of Man, the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland during the 9th and 10th centuries. Viking control of northern Scotland ended in 1231.

Later colonization

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark established colonies in the Gold Coast of West Africa and the Caribbean (St. Thomas and St. John), as well as many small colonies in India.

Between 1560 and 1660 Sweden expanded its borders to several Baltic States (Estland, Livonia, Ingria and Karelia).

Approximately 80,000 Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands during the 17th and 18th centuries. Many young men worked on Dutch merchant ships or joined the Dutch navy, while young women moved to Amsterdam to work as maids.

Italy/Greece 5% (0% - 12%)

Primarily located in: Italy, Greece.....Also found in: France, Switzerland, Portugal, Spain, Serbia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Austria, Croatia, Bosnia, Romania, Turkey, Slovenia, Algeria, Tunisia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Kosovo

Located in the south of Europe, against the Mediterranean Sea, this region gave rise to some of the most iconic and powerful cultures the Western world has known. The Greeks were first, with their pantheon of gods, legendary heroes, philosophers and artists. They subsequently influenced the Romans, whose vast empire spread its ideas and language across Europe.

Population History

Prehistoric Italy/Greece

The history of this region is dominated by two titans: the Greeks and the Romans. During the height of the Classical Era, the Greeks introduced cultural, civic and philosophical ideas and innovations that heavily influenced the Roman Empire and, in turn, laid the foundations of Western civilization.

Ancient Greece was settled by four different Greek-speaking groups. During the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greece of Homer's epics consisted of the Achaeans, Aeolians and Ionians. It was one of the great powers of its time. The remaining group, the Dorians, rose to prominence around 1100 B.C. when the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. The influence of these groups spread beyond mainland Greece to the western coastline of modern Turkey and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

The Greeks also founded colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. Called Magna Graecia in Latin, these settlements existed alongside the native tribes of the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans, Umbrians and Latins. The Latins would later build their capital in Rome, drawing heavily on the culture of their Greek neighbors.

Colonies of Italy/Greece

Besides Sicily and southern Italy, the Greeks established many more colonies around the Mediterranean, from approximately 750 B.C. until 500 B.C. Established as small city-states, most of these colonies were trading outposts. Others were created by refugees when Greek cities were overrun and the displaced inhabitants looked for new land. More than 90 Greek colonies were established, from Ukraine and Russia to the north, Turkey to the east, southern Spain in the west, and Egypt and Libya in the south.

The Classical Age of Greece began around the 5th century B.C. It was the era of Athens, Sparta, the birth of democracy, and many of Greece’s famous playwrights and philosophers. After two bloody wars with the Persian Empire, Athens and Sparta went to war with each other, leading to the eventual decline of both. The Macedonian king, Philip II, united the Greek city-states in 338 B.C. After Philip’s assassination, his son, Alexander the Great, became king of Macedonia and carried out his father’s plans to invade Persia. Alexander led his armies in conquest of the Middle East, part of India, and Egypt, spreading the Greek language and culture throughout much of the ancient world.

His triumph was short-lived, however; he died on his campaign and his conquered territories were divided among his generals. But many important Greek cities and colonies were established and remained under Greek rule, including Seleucia, Antioch and Alexandria.


While Greece spread its influence eastward, the small city of Rome was growing into a regional power in Italy. As the Roman Republic expanded, it established colonies of Roman citizens to maintain control of newly conquered lands. By the time Julius Caesar seized power from the Senate, the Roman war machine was nearly unstoppable. Soldiers who served for years in the military were rewarded with land in Roman colonies throughout the empire, which stretched from Turkey and the Middle East to Spain and northern France.

Invasion of the barbarians

During the late Roman Empire, Constantine the Great established Constantinople as the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The Empire was divided and, as the focus of power shifted away from Rome, the Western Empire was left vulnerable to a series of invasions by Goths, Huns, Visigoths and Heruli. In 476 A.D. a Germanic soldier, Odoacer, deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, signaling the fall of the old Roman Empire. The Eastern Empire continued to flourish, becoming known as the Byzantine Empire. Odoacer was soon murdered by the Ostrogoth ruler Theodoric. Although the barbarians had seized Rome, they never established a major settlement in Italy.

From around 610 A.D. to 867 A.D., the Byzantine Empire was attacked by numerous groups, including the Persians, Lombards, Avars, Slavs, Arabs, Normans, Franks, Goths and Bulgars. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the empire slowly freed Greece from these invaders. The Slavs had the most success at establishing permanent settlements in Greece, although they, too, were eventually defeated and banished from the Greek peninsula.

During this time, Greek-speaking people from Sicily and Asia Minor migrated to Greece, and a large number of Sephardic Jews emigrated from Spain to Greece, as well.

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine Empire, expanding through Greece and capturing Athens in 1458. Many of the Greek scholars fled and migrated to Christian Western Europe. Ottoman colonies were established in several areas in Greece, and held on until Greek independence was declared in 1821.

Italy in the Middle Ages

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the city-states of Italy developed trading and banking institutions. They established a wealth of trading relationships with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic powers, all around the Mediterranean. The escalation in trade lead to a resurgence of financial power in Italy, allowing it to create Italian colonies as far away as the Black Sea.

Finland/Northwest Russia 2% (0% - 6%)

Primarily located in: Finland, Russia (northwest)
Also found in: Estonia, Latvia, Sweden, Lithuania

Finland is one of the Nordic nations, straddling the Arctic Circle north of continental Europe. Although it shares long borders with the Scandinavian nations of Sweden and Norway, Finland stands apart in both language and ethnic identity. Politically controlled by its neighbors Sweden and Russia through much of its history, Finland today is a strong, independent nation with a unique, ancient heritage.

Population History

The people

The Finnish region (Suomi) includes modern-day Finland and northwestern Russia. The majority of the people of the region today speak Finnish, which is completely unrelated to its Germanic and Slavic neighbors. It is more closely related to languages such as Estonian, Hungarian, Sami and Mordvinic (Erzya and Moksha), which are part of a common Uralic language group.

Prehistoric Finland

The Proto-Uralic peoples are thought to have inhabited the central Ural Mountains east of modern Finland, from around 5000 B.C. to 8000 B.C. The Finnic and Ugric tribes that spread west into eastern and northern Europe were descended from the Proto-Uralic people. Linguistic experts believe that one of those tribes, the Sami people, inhabited modern-day Finland before the Finns. Considered the indigenous population of Finland, the Sami were forced farther north as the Finns later expanded into the region from modern-day Estonia.

The medieval and modern eras

Finland was politically controlled by Sweden from the 12th century and throughout its medieval period. After 1581, the kings of Sweden regularly bestowed the title of “Duke of Finland” upon members of the Swedish royal family. The Finnish War between Sweden and Russia resulted in the Russian Emperor becoming the Duke of the Grand Duchy of Finland, an autonomous part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917. Since December 1917 Finland has been an independent country.

Other groups in the Finland area

Extended Swedish rule and immigration along the coast resulted in a significant population of Swedish speakers in the southwestern parts of Finland and intermixing of these ethnic groups. The northwestern corner of Russia bordering Finland is home to a subgroup of ethnic Finns referred to as Karelians. The Karelian language is closely related to the Finnish language and is considered by some to be a Finnish dialect. Others view Karelian as a distinct language.

Modern Finland is mostly homogeneous, ethnically, with the major ethnicity being Finns. The population of Finland in 2012 was 5.4 million. The map (right) shows the location of the small Sami minority in the north and the Swedish minority in the southwest.

Interestingly, a DNA study in 2008 showed no significant differences between the Swedish- speakers in the Ostrobothnia region of Finland (where 40% of all Swedish speakers in Finland live) and the adjacent Finnish-speaking populations.

Finland today

Like the other Nordic countries, Finland has a highly egalitarian society with strong state-run social programs, including a comprehensive welfare system, education and health care. Finland is often rated among the world’s best in education, economy and quality of life. Finland is the only Nordic country to have joined the eurozone, replacing their previous currency, the markka, with the euro.

Europe West 1% (0% - 7%)

Primarily located in: Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein.....Also found in: England, Denmark, Italy, Slovenia, Czech Republic

The Europe West region is a broad expanse stretching from Amsterdam's sea-level metropolis to the majestic peaks of the Alps. Geographically dominated by France in the west and Germany in the east, it includes several nations with distinct cultural identities. From the boisterous beer gardens of Munich to the sun-soaked vineyards of Bordeaux and the alpine dairy farms of Switzerland, it is a region of charming cultural diversity.

Population History

Prehistoric Western Europe

Due to its location and geography, Western Europe has seen many successive waves of immigrants throughout its history. Both peaceful intermingling and violent invasions of newcomers have resulted in a greater diversity in the genetics of the population, compared with neighboring regions.

The first major migration into Western Europe is arguably the Neolithic expansion of farmers who came from the Middle East. From about 8,000 to 6,000 years ago these farmers filtered in through Turkey and brought with them wheat, cows and pigs. It is possible, too, that these people could have been the megalithic cultures who erected enormous stone monuments like the famous menhirs of Stonehenge. There were dozens, if not hundreds, of monuments scattered throughout prehistoric Europe, some serving as tombs, others possibly having astronomical significance.

Celtic and Germanic tribes

Although “Celtic” is often associated with the people of Ireland and Scotland, the Celts emerged as a unique culture in central Europe more than 2,500 years ago. From an epicenter in what is now Austria, they spread and settled in the areas of today’s western Germany and eastern France, generally near the Rhine and Danube Rivers. By 450 B.C., their influence and Celtic languages had spread across most of western Europe, including the areas that are now France, the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles. The Celts either conquered or assimilated the previous inhabitants of the area, and almost all languages and cultural and religious customs were replaced. The only exception, most scholars believe, is the Basque language, which managed to persist in the Pyrenees of southern France and northern Spain.

In the early 4th century B.C., Celtic tribes in northern Italy invaded and sacked Rome, setting the stage for centuries of conflict.

In the 5th century B.C., Germanic peoples began moving south, from Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany, displacing the Celts as they went. It is unclear what prompted their movement, but it may have been climate related, as they sought warmer weather and more fertile farmland. The Germanic tribes’ expansion was checked by the generals, Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar, as they approached the Roman provinces aound 100 B.C.

The Romans

After Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, the Republic had extended its borders to include the entire Italian Peninsula, Carthage’s territories in North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Greece and parts of Anatolia. It began turning its attention northwest toward the Celtic-dominated region known as Gaul, which more or less covered the area of modern-day France. Part of Rome’s motivation was to secure its frontier, as conflict with the Celts was a chronic problem. Julius Caesar led the campaign to conquer Gaul. A Celtic chieftain, Vercingetorix, assembled a confederation of tribes and mounted a resistance, but was defeated at the Battle of Alesia in 52 B.C. The battle effectively ended Celtic resistance. The Gauls were absorbed into the Roman Republic and became thoroughly assimilated into Roman culture, adopting the language, customs, governance and religion of the Empire. Many generals and even emperors were born in Gaul or came from Gallic families.

For the most part, by 400 A.D., Western Europe was split between the Roman Empire and the restless Germanic tribes to the northeast. Celtic culture and influence still held sway in parts of the British Isles, and the Basque language continued to survive in the Pyrenees. It is interesting to note that the Basque share genetic similarities to the Celts of Ireland and Scotland, despite being culturally and linguistically dissimilar and geographically separated. While the exact relationship of the groups is difficult to determine, this does highlight the interesting interplay between genetic origin and ethno-linguistic identity.

The Migration Period

By 400 A.D., the Roman Empire had been split into pieces. Rome was no longer the heart of the Empire, as the seat of power had been moved to Byzantium in the east. The Romans had begun to adopt Greek customs and language as well as Christianity, which had become the official state religion. Control of the provinces in the west had waned, and Rome itself was militarily weakened.

About this time, there was a period of intensified human migration throughout Europe, called the Migration Period, or the Völkerwanderung (“migration of peoples” in German). Many of the groups involved were Germanic tribes, whose expansion had previously been held in check by the Romans.

To some degree, the earlier Germanic tribes of the Migration Period, notably the Goths and Vandals, were being pushed west and south by invasions from the Middle East and Central Asia. The Huns swept across eastern Europe, followed by the Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Alans. These successive attacks may have been a factor in several waves of population displacement and resettlement.

Seven large German-speaking tribes—the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Saxons and Franks—began pressing aggressively west into the Roman provinces and, in 410, the Visigoths attacked and sacked Rome. The western part of the Roman Empire was rapidly overrun as the invaders swept in, eventually dividing the remainder of the Roman provinces into new, Germanic kingdoms.

The Frankish Kingdom

The Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 A.D. and established an empire under the Merovingian kings, subjugating many of the other Germanic tribes. Over the course of almost four centuries, a succession of Frankish kings, including Clovis, Clothar, Pepin and Charlemagne, led campaigns that greatly expanded Frankish control over Western Europe.

Charlemagne's kingdom covered almost all of France, most of today's Germany, Austria and northern Italy. On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans.” This upset the Byzantine emperor, who saw himself as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, but by 812, he was forced to accept Charlemagne as co-emperor.

In 843, Charlemagne's grandsons divided the Frankish empire into three parts—one for each of them. Charles the Bald received the western portion, which later became France. Lothair received the central portion of the empire, called Middle Francia, which stretched from the North Sea to northern Italy. It included parts of eastern France, western Germany and the Low Countries. Louis the German received the eastern portion, which eventually became the high medieval Kingdom of Germany, the largest component of the Holy Roman Empire.

Additional cultures of note

In addition to the Basque in the area of the Pyrenees in southern France, there are a number of other cultures with unique ethnic or linguistic identities in Western Europe. Among them are the Normans of northern France. Descended from Viking settlers who arrived sometime during the rule of the Frankish kings, the Normans controlled a powerful region known as Normandy. Their territories were subject to the French crown, which countenanced them in exchange for protecting the northern coast against other Viking raids.

Just to the west of Normandy was Brittany, named after the Celtic Britons who arrived there from the British Isles in the 5th century. Some scholars believe that the migration may have been due to the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Brittany resisted the Frankish kings and remained independent until 1532. It is one of the few places where Celtic languages are still spoken.

Ireland – 1% (0% - 5%)

Primarily located in: Ireland, Wales, Scotland
Also found in: France, England

Ireland is located in the eastern part of the North Atlantic Ocean, directly west of Great Britain. A variety of internal and external influences have shaped Ireland as we know it today. Ireland’s modern cultural remains deeply rooted in the Celtic culture that spread across much of Central Europe and into the British Isles. Along with Wales, Scotland, and a handful of other isolated communities within the British Isles, Ireland remains one of the last holdouts of the ancient Celtic languages that were once spoken throughout much of Western Europe. And though closely tied to Great Britain, both geographically and historically, the Irish have fiercely maintained their unique character through the centuries.

Population History

Prehistoric Ireland & Scotland

After the Ice Age glaciers retreated from Northern Europe more than 9,000 years ago, hunter- gatherers spread north into what is now Great Britain and Ireland, during the Middle Stone Age. Some 3,000 years later, during the New Stone Age, the first farming communities appeared in Ireland. The Bronze Age began 4,500 years ago and brought with it new skills linked to metalworking and pottery. During the late Bronze Age, Iron was discovered in mainland Europe and a new cultural phenomenon began to evolve.

Around 500 B.C., the Bronze Age gave way to an early Iron Age culture that spread across all of Western Europe, including the British Isles. These new people originated in central Europe, near what is Austria today. They were divided into many different tribes, but were collectively known as the Celts.

The Celts

From around 400 B.C. to 275 B.C., various tribes expanded to the Iberian Peninsula, France, England, Scotland and Ireland—even as far east as Turkey. Today we refer to these tribes as ‘Celtic’ though that is a modern term which only came into use in the 18th century. As the Roman Empire expanded beyond the Italian peninsula, it began to come into increasing contact with the Celts of France, whom the Romans called “Gauls.”

The Romans

The Romans eventually conquered the Gauls and began an invasion of the British Isles in 43 A.D. Most of southern Britain was conquered and occupied over the course of a few decades. As the Roman Empire advanced, the Celtic tribes were forced to retreat to other areas that remained under Celtic control, chiefly Wales, Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Brittany. The Roman presence largely wiped out most traces of Celtic culture in England—even replacing the language. Since the Romans never occupied Ireland or Scotland in any real sense, they are among the few places where Celtic languages have survived to this day.

The Vikings

Beginning in the late 8th century, Viking raiders began attacking the east coast of England and the northern islands off Scotland. The first recorded Viking raid in Ireland was in 795 A.D. on the island of Lambay, off the coast of Dublin. During the next few centuries, they controlled parts of the islands, exacting tribute, and pillaging villages and monasteries.

During the 9th century, the Vikings established trading ports in Dublin, Cork, Waterford, Wexford, and Limerick. As they settled in Ireland, Vikings intermarried and assimilated with the native population. Today, many Irish surnames such as Loughlin, Doyle, and Cotter are of Viking origin.

The Normans

During the 12th century, Ireland consisted of a number of small warring kingdoms, and England was ruled by Norman kings (the Normans originated in Northern France where they gave their name to the region of Normandy). When Diarmait Mac Murchada, the King of Leinster, was deposed by the Irish High King, he turned to Henry II of England for help. Henry sent Norman mercenaries to assist, and Mac Murchada regained control of Leinster, though he died shortly thereafter. Then in 1171, Henry II seized control of Ireland, and with the support of Pope Adrian IV, he took the title “Lord of Ireland,” and the Norman lords established a presence in Ireland.

The Norman invasion brought many changes to Ireland like walled towns and the building of castles and churches. Like the Vikings before them, the Normans assimilated with the native Irish population. The Norman influence in Ireland lives on in surnames such as Butler, French, Roche, and Burke. Irish surnames beginning with “Fitz” are also Norman. Fitz is the equivalent of the Gaelic “Mac” meaning “son of.” For example, the name Fitzpatrick indicates a descendant of a Patrick.

English Rule

As Norman influence declined in Ireland, the English monarchs took a more direct role in the governance of Ireland. In 1542 after a failed Irish rebellion, Henry VIII created the Kingdom of Ireland, bringing the area under direct English rule.

Around this time Henry made another decision that had far reaching consequences for Ireland. In 1527 after the Pope refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic Church and created the Church of England, with the English monarch as its head. This English Reformation resulted in a rise in Protestantism across England, Scotland, and Wales. Ireland was resistant to Protestantism, and when England attempted to force it upon them—and failed—the Crown replaced Irish landowners with thousands of Protestant colonists from England and Scotland. These colonies became known as the Plantations of Ireland, whose long term effect was to replace the Catholic ruling classes with Protestants. Then in the 1600’s Penal Laws were introduced which denied Catholics many land owning and political rights. The repression of Catholics in Ireland continued up until the 1830s when Daniel O’Connell led the campaign for Catholic Emancipation.

Irish Emigration

In June 1963, when he visited Ireland, President John F. Kennedy gave a speech in Cork in which he said ‘Most countries send out oil or iron, steel or gold, or some other crop, but Ireland has had only one export and that is its people’.

Ireland has a history of emigration that goes back centuries. Plantations and Penal Laws created harsh conditions for Catholics and Dissenters (Protestants who were separate from the Church of England). For many emigration was the only option for survival. In the 1600s Irish migrated to the Caribbean and Virginia Colony. In the 1700s many Irish Quakers and Presbyterians departed for North America. Although the “Great Famine” of the 1840s is often mentioned as the time of mass migration out of Ireland, the decades after the famine saw even greater numbers of people leaving its shores.

The 20th century saw several waves of Irish emigration. During the 1940s, 1950s, and 1980s a great many Irish left Ireland for a new life abroad. The main destinations for Irish emigrants have been Great Britain, America, and Australia. Today it’s estimated that up to 100 million people around the world can claim Irish heritage.

Caucasus 1% (0% -3%)

Primarily located in: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey
Also found in: Bulgaria, Jordan, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Palestine, Romania, Turkmenistan

The Greater Caucasus Range, running northwest to southeast between the Black and Caspian Seas, is the traditional line of demarcation between the continents of Europe and Asia. It was here, according to Greek mythology, that Zeus bound Prometheus for giving fire to humans. Linguistically, culturally, and even ecologically diverse, the Caucasus area is home to more than 50 ethnic groups and is one of 34 "biodiversity hotspots" (areas with significant, threatened biodiversity) in the world.

Population History

Our Caucasus region extends from the Anatolian Peninsula and the nation of Turkey, bordered by the Mediterranean, to the Caucasus Mountains, which form its northern boundary along Russia’s southwestern edge. There, the nations of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan are nestled in the highlands between the Black and Caspian Seas. In the south, it stretches from Syria to Iran, reaching all the way to the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea.

Its location has made the area a homeland for some of the world's most famous civilizations and empires. Cyrus the Great expanded his territories from his home in Iran to create the powerful Persian Empire, the largest in the world to that point (around 540 B.C.). Known for his religious and cultural tolerance, Cyrus freed the Jews from slavery to the Babylonians. Cyrus’s descendants Darius and Xerxes famously battled the Greeks at Thermopylae, Salamis and Marathon during the Greco-Persian Wars.

Turkey, in particular, has historically been at the crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures, beginning with the Trojan War. As famously narrated by Homer in his Iliad, Mycenaean Greeks laid siege to the ancient Lydian city of Troy, which was most likely part of the ancient Hittite Empire. The Roman Empire, ruling from Constantinople, spread Christianity and Greco-Roman culture throughout Anatolia. The arrival of Turkic peoples from Central Asia brought the Turkish language and Islam. Their eventual conquests in the Byzantine Empire and its territories in the Holy Lands of the Levant were the catalysts for the first Crusades.

Much of the Caucasus region is Muslim. Shia Islam is the official state religion of Iran, while the Sunni branch is predominant in the Caucasus groups of the north, such as the Nogay (also Nogai), Adyghe and Chechens. Modern-day Turkey is a secular nation, but the vast majority of the population is Muslim, including the Kurds in the southeast. Georgia and Armenia have a long history of Christianity, being two of the earliest nations to adopt it. Along with Azerbaijan, they were part of the former Soviet Union (USSR). Since the dissolution of the USSR, continual border disputes contribute to a tense atmosphere.

Migrations into this region

About 45,000 years ago, modern humans first came to the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding region from somewhere in the Middle East. Farming spread to the Caucasus Mountains during the Neolithic period, and later, Jewish populations also moved north into the region. Additional evidence suggests that Mongols invaded the Caucasus area 800 years ago, leaving descendants such as the Nogay.

Migrations from this region

Despite its intermediate position between Eastern Europe and the Middle East, the Caucasus region seems rarely to have been the source of migrations.

Senegal 1% (0%-2%)

Primarily located in: Senegal, the Gambia
Also found in: Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania

Africa’s westernmost nation, Senegal, lies about 1,000 miles above the equator and boasts miles of beaches along the Atlantic. It’s bordered by Mauritania, Mali, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau and almost completely encircles the Gambia. The country’s current population is just about evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers, with more than 2 million Senegalese now living in and around the capital city of Dakar. Senegal is widely known for its music, including mbalax (“rhythm” in Wolof, the working language of Senegal) and dazzling sabar drumming.

Population History

Archeological findings indicate that the Senegal area has been inhabited since prehistoric times. For the last millennium at least, trade routes have helped shape the area. Trans-Saharan trade flowing to and from the interior of Africa helped establish and maintain the Ghana, Mali, and Wolof (or Jolof) Empires, each of which bordered or included portions of modern-day Senegal. Trade and conquest brought wealth, Islam and people into the region—and sometimes pushed people out.

Portuguese traders reached the estuary of the Senegal River in the mid-1400s. Over the next four centuries the direction of trade shifted. Instead of heading inland, toward the Sahara, it began to flow outward, toward the European traders on the Atlantic Coast. As colonial powers began to push farther inland themselves in the 19th century, they eventually brought an end to local kingdoms and actually furthered the spread of Islam, which became a way of uniting against the European invaders.

Slave raiding and trading were major sources of revenue for the region’s kings, and the island of Gorée (just a mile off the coast of Senegal, opposite Dakar) became the largest slave-trading center in Africa. Controlled at various times by the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French, the island served as a warehouse where, over a 200-year period, millions of slaves were taken from their homeland. The island, with its House of Slaves museum and memorial, is now a pilgrimage destination for the African diaspora from the slave trade.

The French took control of Senegal in the 19th century, while the Gambia became a British colony. Senegal gained independence in 1960; the Gambia, in 1965.

Migrations and ethnic groups in the Senegal region

Senegal’s current population is believed to be a mixture of peoples who moved into the region from the north and the east. Despite its relatively small size, the area is home to several ethnic groups. Today, the predominant population groups are the Wolof (43%), the Fula (23%) and the Serer (14%). Others include the Jola and the Mandinka.

Wolof

Many believe the Wolof (or Jolof) people migrated into Senegal from the northeast sometime around the 11th century. By 1350, they had established their own empire, a federation of several Wolof kingdoms, or states. The Wolof Empire came to an end when the French took control of the interior during the 19th century. Most Wolof identify themselves as Muslim. Their culture once had a three-tiered caste system—freeborn, of slave descent, and artisans—though this has broken down somewhat in recent times. The Wolof language has become the lingua franca of Senegal.

Fula

Historically, the Fula (Fulani, Fulbe, Peul) were a nomadic people known for keeping cattle. Some evidence suggests that their presence in West Africa goes back centuries, possibly including North African and Middle Eastern ancestry. They spread outward from Senegal, through western and central Africa and east to the Sudan. They are also strongly linked to Islam, and some Fulani led jihads in West Africa as late as the 19th century. In modern Senegal, they primarily live in the Fouta Toro area, in the northeastern part of the country; and near Casamance, south of the Gambia.

Serer

Some scholars believe that the Serer people have the oldest roots in the region, and Serer oral traditions claim their original ancestors came from the Upper Nile area. The Serer people resisted Islam for centuries, and some still practice their traditional religion of Fat Rog (or Fat Roog). Many also speak one of the Serer languages, and most occupy the west-central part of modern Senegal. Although the Serer are a minority in the country, Senegal’s first and second presidents were Serers. Senegalese wrestling also has roots in Serer forms of wrestling, which was once used to train warriors for combat.

Mandinka

The Mandinka are a minority population in Senegal, but a significant one because of their experience with the slave trade. The Mandinka group is a branch of the Mandé peoples, who came south into the areas of Senegal and Mali and were instrumental in founding the Ghana and Mali Empires. During the slave trade era, up to one third of the Mandinka people were enslaved and shipped to the New World. (Mandinka make up more than 40% of the population in neighboring Gambia.)

Please note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.